Jainism\u2019s<\/strong> influence on sexuality and marriage.\u00a0 Marriage is recommended so that the children of the couple would have the same dharma (religion).\u00a0\u00a0 The purpose of marriage is to make sex legal.\u00a0 Sex is strictly procreational and is done only during the ovulation period (\u201cIndian Religious Concepts\u201d, para 18).\u00a0\u00a0 Jains also favor to have their sons and daughters married within the community so that their children will also have the same dharma.\u00a0 They condemn the practice of giving dowry.\u00a0 Jainism sees to it that celibacy-chaste is the norm.\u00a0 \u201cThe highest ideals of classical or traditional Jainism are represented by the ascetics-the members of the faith who devote their whole lives to living the Jain code of ethics in its strictest forms\u201d.\u00a0 \u201cJain monks and nuns are expected to remain completely celibate in body and mind\u201d.\u00a0 \u201cChaste living is important to Jains because sexual indulgence gets in the way of the road to liberation. Jain monks and nuns practice strict asceticism and strive to make their current birth their last, thus ending their cycle of transmigration\u201d.\u00a0 Sexual passion can defeat rational thinking and ethically right behavior, hence can result to bad karma (deeds).\u00a0\u00a0 The purpose of this vow is to defeat passions which waste energy caused by pleasurable desires.\u00a0 The monks understand the power of sex and are advised not to indulge in it.\u00a0 Before they became monks, they avoided thinking about sex and they also avoided remembering sexual incidents.\u00a0 Jains must have sex only with their husband and wife but must avoid sexual indulgence.\u00a0 If possible, they must give up sex after having a son.\u00a0 The husband must be satisfied with his own wife, and must regard other women as his sisters, mothers, and daughters.\u00a0 Some Jain writers suggest that even married people should avoid over indulging in sexual activities.\u00a0 Chaste living also means that Jains should avoid sexual thoughts and sex before marriage.\u00a0 They should not look at pornographic or sexually stimulating material.\u00a0 Sexual deviations, such as contact with animal and inanimate objects should be avoided.\u00a0 (\u201cIndian Religious Concepts\u201d, para 19). \u00a0In Jainism, both men and women are encouraged to maintain purity just like monks and nuns because too much sexual passion can defeat their rational thinking, thus might lead them to do horrible acts which are punishable.\u00a0 Although, these ideas apply both to men and women, the explanation of the authors also show control of women\u2019s ovaries.<\/p>\u00a0<\/p>
In a journal made by Randhawa and Alrowaili (2017), they explored on the topic, Abstinence, Marriage, and Religions for the Prevention and Control of HIV Infection and other Sexually Transmitted Diseases.\u00a0 The paragraph below is the abstract of their article:<\/p>
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About 84% of world’s population is linked to five major religions: Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism. One thing common in these religions is marriage, which is a life-long cultural and spiritual union between man and women. Religions give great emphasis to marriage and discourage immorality and adultery. In Holy Bible, it is narrated, “Let marriage be held in honor among all, and let marriage bed be undefiled, for God will judge sexually immoral and adulterous” (Hebrews 13:4). Holy Quran describes, “And among His (God Almighty) signs is that He created for you spouses from among yourselves, that you may find peacefulness in them, and He has put between you affection and mercy, verily, in that are signs for a people who reflect” (30; 21). In Judaism, marriage is an important event and avoiding from it is considered as unnatural. In Buddhism and Hinduism, marriage is also a sacred ceremony and lifelong commitment between wife and husband. Center for Diseases Control and Prevention recommends to abstain from oral, vaginal, and anal sex; or to be in a long-term, mutually monogamous relationship with an uninfected partner. Marriage is an excellent mod of mutual relationship between spouses, provides ample opportunity for sex entertainment and together with religious attitude helps to abstain from sex outside marriage. Present article is aimed to promote marriage and religions for prevention of sexually transmitted diseases, particularly Human Immune-deficiency Virus infection, which is becoming epidemic worldwide and there is no effective vaccine or treatment for that so far.\u00a0 (p.1)<\/p>
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Furthermore, In Randhawa and Alrowaili\u201ds (2017) article, they concluded that:<\/p>
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The basic teachings about marriage and extra marital sex, that can help to control HIV infection and other STDs, are almost the same in all major religions of the world: Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism. The individuals and communities who follow these instructions religiously they benefit, and those who do not practice their chances to get HIV and other STDs are enhanced. Like a patient when comply the prescription of his doctor benefits and if doesn’t would suffer. Therefore, there is an immense need to propagate the original words of the Lord, God and Allah Almighty pertaining to marriage and marital relationship for the best interest of the entire mankind. (p.5).<\/p>
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Although the above article is generally for men and women, women are also affected and are bound to follow the teachings of their corresponding religion in order to avoid HIV infection and other sexually transmitted diseases.\u00a0 Religion also encourages them to be faithful to their husbands in order to avoid adultery or extra marital affairs.\u00a0 \u00a0Abbott, Harris, & Mollen (2016) explained that \u201creligious commitment is associated with decreased sexual activity, poor sexual satisfaction, and sexual guilt, particularly among women\u201d (p. 1).\u00a0 The effect of religion on women\u2019s sexual self-esteem is presented below:<\/p>
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Women with high religious commitment held more conservative sexual attitudes. Significant relationships between religious commitment and two subscales (moral judgment and attractiveness) of the SSEI-W revealed that women with high religious commitment were less likely to perceive sex as congruent with their moral values and simultaneously reported significantly greater confidence in their sexual attractiveness. A significant relationship between religious commitment and overall sexual self-esteem was found for women whose religion of origin was Catholicism, such that those with higher religious commitment reported lower sexual self-esteem. A hierarchical regression analysis revealed that high religious commitment and perception that God viewed sex negatively independently predicted lower sexual self-esteem, as related to moral judgment. Implications of the findings are provided.\u00a0 (Abbot et al., 2016, p. 1).<\/p>
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Hunt and Jung (2009) asserted that \u201creligion often serves as the gatekeeper of what is deemed acceptable sexual practice. \u00a0\u00a0Religious standards and expectations around sex are typically particularly restrictive for women\u201d (as cited in Abbott et al., 2016, p. 1069).\u00a0 Miller 2013 also stated that \u201cmost of the major world religions are situated within patriarchy, a system linked with the history of oppression of women\u201d (as cited in Abbott et al., 2016, p. 1069).\u00a0 In a conservative country, women are like placed within specific boundaries especially when it comes to sexuality.\u00a0 Chaste women are regarded highly and promiscuous women are underestimated.\u00a0 Women are prohibited to explore their sexuality, but men are more tolerated because they are accepted to be \u201cmasculine\u201d, and such trait is considered as normal for them.\u00a0 Men are more tolerated to explore their sexuality, but women are considered as \u201csinful\u201d, \u201cflirt\u201d, \u201cfilthy\u201d once they are liberated.\u00a0 It may be true that people in conservative countries have different views regarding women\u2019s sexuality, but chaste women are highly praised.<\/p>
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Abbott et al. (2016) also showed the exploratory analysis of their study, entitled \u201cThe Impact of Religious Commitment on Women\u2019s Sexual Self-Esteem\u201d:<\/p>
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An exploratory analysis revealed that women who were raised Catholic<\/strong> had lower overall sexual self-esteem. The same was true for women who currently identified as Protestant and reported sexually permissive attitudes. The majority of participants identified as Christian<\/strong> (40.3 %), rather than a more specific denomination.\u00a0 It is possible that these participants retain a belief in Christian values without participation in organized forms of Christian faith. Additionally, the measure of religious commitment in this study did not require frequent church attendance in order to be considered religiously committed. Therefore, it may be that the majority of participants in the current study were not frequently exposed to the restrictive sexual messages regarding women\u2019s sexuality that are sometimes communicated through religious authorities. Those who identified with a specific, formal denomination within Christianity may have attended services or encountered restrictive messages more frequently and, in turn, developed lower sexual self-esteem.\u00a0 (p. 1078).<\/p>\u00a0<\/p>
In a positive perspective, enhanced spirituality due to religion also has positive influences on people, especially on women.\u00a0 Oman & Thorensen (2002) elaborated that:<\/p>
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There are four prominent pathways in which religion influences health: health behaviors (through prescribing a certain diet and\/or discouraging the abuse of alcoholic beverages, smoking, etc., religion can protect and promote a healthy lifestyle), social support (people can experience social contact with co-religionists and have a web of social relations that can help and protect whenever the case), psychological states (religious people can experience a better mental health, more positive psychological states, more optimism and faith, which in turn can lead to a better physical state due to less stress) and\u00a0 \u2018psi\u2019 influences (supernatural laws that govern \u2018energies\u2019 not currently comprehended by science but possibly understandable at some point by science). Because spirituality\/religion influences health through these pathways, they act in an indirect way on health (as cited in Rumun, 2014, p.39).<\/p>
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The ideas Oman & Thorensen may help women to look at religion positively.\u00a0 Although religions\u2019 views have similarities and differences in terms of beliefs and practices, generally however, they aim to promote one\u2019s spiritual, physical, and psychological health. \u00a0Kaur (2018) stated that \u201cIn Sikhism<\/strong> a married woman performs a very useful role in society through maintaining sexual discipline and establishing a morally healthy society. She is an embodiment of virtue and fortitude and not a force that seduces man to evil\u201d (\u201cAll About Sikhs\u201d, para 11).\u00a0 Through religion, women have certain guidelines that will help them to function normally in a society.\u00a0 Although it can be biased at times because in some societies, men are more tolerated to express their sexuality, and women were more controlled.\u00a0 Different religions have laws which are common to men and women.\u00a0 \u00a0With regard to pregnancy and contraception, women are affected because they are the ones that give birth.\u00a0 However, there are some ways that also affect men when it comes to controlling women\u2019s pregnancy.\u00a0<\/p>\u00a0<\/p>
Hinduism<\/strong> has its beliefs regarding sexuality and family; Srikanthan & Reid (2008) expressed that \u201cSexual relationships are to be experienced and mutually enjoyed within the limits of marriage.\u00a0 Such relations are for both procreation and pleasure.\u00a0 Marriage is viewed as essential for the stability of social order\u201d (p. 133).\u00a0 Although such belief applies to both men and women, this shows that women are not encouraged to be promiscuous and are not also allowed to enjoy their sexuality with their partners without marriage.<\/p>\u00a0<\/p>
If a woman is pregnant and she does not like to have it, she cannot just resort to abortion. \u00a0\u00a0There are practices that different religions adhere to.\u00a0 Rumun (2014) stated that:<\/p>
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In Baha faith<\/strong>, termination of pregnancy is permitted only where there are strong medical grounds such as risk to the life and health of the mother. It is not regarded lightly and is not permitted as a social or contraceptive measure. Whether it is acceptable in any specific case is for consultation between the patient and her medical attendant in the light of this guidance.\u00a0 The rearing of children is regarded as one of the main reasons for the institution of marriage, but the details and extent of contraceptive practice are left to the conscience of the couple. Many Bah\u00e1\u2019\u00eds will not use the intra-uterine device for contraception as they regard it more as an obortifacient than a contraceptive (p. 41).\u00a0 Buddhists<\/strong> believe that life begins at conception and so do not condemn contraception.\u00a0 However, as abortion and active euthanasia are seen as taking life they are condemned (p.41).\u00a0 Strictly speaking orthodox Muslims<\/strong> do not approve of contraception, in practice, individuals vary widely in their approach. Abortion is frowned upon but is often tolerated if it is for medical reasons (p. 43).\u00a0 Immediately after birth the father or other family members would read a short prayer while holding the infant. Muslim women are encouraged to breast-feed. Contraception is accepted by many Muslims<\/strong>, with the consent of the couple and if the method is safe. Abortion or termination of pregnancy is only allowed if there is a serious medical condition for the mother. The older the pregnancy the more difficult the ethical issue, and days 40 and 120 of pregnancy are important milestones (p. 44).<\/p>\u00a0<\/p>
Simply, in Baha faith, abortion or termination of pregnancy is not allowed to be used as a contraceptive method or to avoid having children.\u00a0 It is allowed only when the mother\u2019s life and health are at risk.\u00a0 Of course, the mother has to consult a medical attendant and undergo a thorough check-up in order to identify if it is advisable to continue the pregnancy.\u00a0 Children, in Baha Faith, are valuable because they are the main reason why marriage can be considered as an institution, so couples should use their conscience in determining the appropriate contraceptive method.\u00a0\u00a0 Buddhists condemn abortion because they believe that life begins at conception.\u00a0 Muslim couples use contraception only when it is safe and they do not also approve of abortion; they resort to abortion only if the mother has a serious medical condition.<\/p>
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Christian denominations<\/strong> vary in terms of views on abortion.\u00a0 Roman Catholic Church<\/strong>, the Maronite and Eastern Orthodox Churches<\/strong>, and some Evangelical<\/strong> and Pentecostal denominations<\/strong> hold the strongest opposition to abortion.\u00a0 Other denominations, particularly Protestant Churches<\/strong> have relatively less categorical stances (UNFPA, 2016, p. 54).\u00a0 Pope John Paul II stated (in 1995) that \u201cThe human being is to be respected and treated as a person from the moment of conception\u201d.\u00a0 There are two laws in the Code of Canon Law that refer to abortion.\u00a0 Canon 1398 stated that \u201cA person who procures a completed abortion incurs a latae sententiae [automatic] excommunication\u201d.\u00a0 Canon 1329 stated that \u201cAccomplices who are not named in the law\u2026incur a latae sententiae penalty attached to an offense if it would not have been committed without their efforts.\u201d\u00a0 Abortion is an abominable crime for Pope Francis; a violation of one of the Ten Commandments that prohibits to pursue life.\u00a0 Every individual has a right to live, even those who are yet to be born.\u00a0 Pope Francis also pointed out the need to protect the vulnerable, including the unborn.\u00a0 There are countries where abortion is legal.\u00a0 In these countries, there are tensions between women and health professionals because the women want to have an abortion and the health professionals have certain concerns regarding this.\u00a0 These women have their legal right to abortion, but health care professionals also have the right to exercise their religion freely in order to raise issues of ethical objections in law and in practice.\u00a0 This exemplifies Italy\u2019s abortion Law 194 of May 22, 1978 which requires health care institutions to ensure that women have access to abortion.\u00a0 However, the Ministry of Health showed in a 2008 report that a number of conscientious objections increased during the first decade of the twenty-first century, because 70 percent of gynecologists in Italy declined to practice abortion due to moral grounds.\u00a0 The views of Protestant churches differ widely because of circumstances and stage of gestation.\u00a0 Orthodox Church disapproves of abortion, while many Evangelical and Pentecostal churches, and Latter Day Saints<\/strong> disapprove of abortion under most circumstances.\u00a0 However, there are many Protestant denominations that consider abortion as a matter for individual conscience (UNFPA, 2016, p.55).\u00a0 \u00a0In a real context, there are women who want to have abortion but religion controls their conscience.\u00a0 There are women who pursue this despite the teachings of the church regarding abortion and there are also who choose to have or keep the baby because they are affected by their faith and by the pressures of the society as well.\u00a0 In this way, even if they own their bodies, they still have to think of the consequences of their decisions.<\/p>\u00a0<\/p>
In Hinduism<\/strong> contexts, positions on abortion are not uniformly structured or absolute because there are no centrally codified Hindu <\/strong>text or teachings.\u00a0 Customarily, views on abortion continuously evolve.\u00a0\u00a0 In contemporary view, if the pregnancy is a threat to the well-being of the mother, then the life of the mother is more privileged.\u00a0 Likewise, abortion is recommended in case there is fetus abnormality.\u00a0 According to Hindu sacred texts, physical and spiritual life are merged during conception.\u00a0 \u201cThe fetus is not merely a tissue of the mother\u2019s body, but a distinct life with basic attributes of humanity from the moment of its conception\u201d.\u00a0 There are thorough discussions about the fate of the soul, because it is believed that the fetus has a soul.\u00a0 Some believe that the aborted fetus will reincarnate in another body.\u00a0 Hindu classical tradition respects \u201clife in the womb\u201d and considers abortion as a \u201cheinous crime\u201d.\u00a0 In Sanskrit terminology, the difference between abortion and miscarriage is shown in its moral dimension \u2013 abortion indicates intention and responsibility, whereas miscarriage is unintentional and morally neutral.\u00a0\u00a0 India, where Hinduism is dominant, has legalized abortion due to a number of medical, economic, and social reasons.\u00a0 The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act (1971) allows abortion in order to save a woman\u2019s life, preserve physical health and mental health, terminate a pregnancy caused by rape or incest, and terminate a pregnancy due to fetus impairment.\u00a0 Failure to take a contraceptive method by either the wife or husband is a sufficient ground for abortion.\u00a0 Social and cultural dynamics are linked to the preference of a son and the widely practiced, sex-selection abortion, even though it is illegal.\u00a0 Social stigma and lack of awareness of legal abortion services limit women\u2019s access to abortion.\u00a0 Hence, many women resort to unauthorized providers.\u00a0 Every two hours, a woman dies from unsafe abortion (UNFPA, 2016, p, 51).\u00a0\u00a0 In Nepal, a law legalizing abortion was passed in 2002.\u00a0 \u201cAbortion can be performed up to 12 weeks of gestation by request and up to 18 weeks of gestation in instances of rape and\/or incest\u201d.\u00a0 Abortion is allowed at any time as long as there is approval from a certified medical practitioner.\u00a0 It is permitted in order to save the life of a woman, and if there is fetus impairment.\u00a0 Sex-selection abortion, which is caused by economic and sociocultural norms, is prohibited but still practiced.\u00a0 Lack of awareness, limited access to affordable services, and social stigma are barriers to safe abortion even if abortion is legal.\u00a0\u00a0 \u201cFor instance, local terms for abortion such as garva tuhaune (taking the baby out of the womb) and adhigro phalne (getting rid of half-grown fetus) create a negative environment for those seeking abortion\u201d (UNFPA, 2016, p. 52).\u00a0 Even though women have access to the services of abortion because it is legal, many resort to the services of unauthorized persons for fear of stigma and lack of awareness as well.\u00a0 Such stigma may be caused by the sacred teaching that \u201cthe fetus is not merely a tissue of the mother\u2019s body, but a distinct life with basic attributes of humanity from the moment of its conception\u201d.\u00a0 Thus, having abortion may bother one\u2019s conscience which is caused by faith in Hindu teachings and pressures from the society.\u00a0 Women own their bodies and they can do anything which please them, but their faith in their religion or in God, the social pressure about the idea that abortion is a heinous crime, prevent them from having abortion.<\/p>\u00a0<\/p>
UNFPA (2016) also showed the stance on abortion in Muslim Contexts<\/strong>.\u00a0 In Islamic jurisprudence, positions on abortion vary.\u00a0 The law and practice in various Muslim-majority countries also vary.\u00a0 The factors that influence these approaches are the circumstances of pregnancy and stages of gestational development.\u00a0 The \u201csanctity of human life and a profound respect for the potential human life\u201d is the core of Islamic teaching.\u00a0 Muslim theologians have suggested that abortion is allowed before ensoulment of the fetus (40, 90, or 120 days after conception).\u00a0\u00a0 \u201cThe Qur\u2019an outlines the beginning of life through different stages of fetal development.\u00a0 A majority of scholars hold that the fetus is ensouled at 120 days, thereby becoming a human person and thus, a legal personality\u201d (p. 56).\u00a0 All Islamic legal schools prohibit any attempt to abort a fetus after 120 days and consider it a criminal offense.\u00a0 However, some scholars stated that abortion after 120 days is permissible if the mother\u2019s life is in danger (p.57).\u00a0 Classical Islamic thought shows four positions of abortion, and these are \u201c(1) unconditional permission for termination; (2) conditional permission for termination under justifiable circumstances; (3) abortion is disapproved; and (4) unconditionally prohibited\u201d.\u00a0 Abortion is allowed to protect the mother\u2019s mental health and physical health.\u00a0 It is also allowed when there is fetal impairment and when the mother is a victim of sexual assault.\u00a0 All schools of thought strictly prohibit abortion which is related to illicit sexual activity, like extramarital relationship.\u00a0 However, there are legal opinions that support this in order to protect a woman (p.58).<\/p>\u00a0<\/p>
Loy (2013) also shared the beliefs about abortion in Buddhism<\/strong>.\u00a0 Abortion is a form of killing.\u00a0 According to the earliest tests, the Pali suttas, \u201cthe Buddha said that it breaks the first precept to avoid killing or harming any sentient being\u201d.\u00a0 \u201cAny monastic who encourages a woman to have an abortion has committed a serious offense that requires expiation\u201d.\u00a0\u00a0 We may be surprised about Buddha\u2019s knowledge of the genetic physiology of conception and pregnancy, but the textual prohibition is clearly expressed or understood.\u00a0 The absolute rule in early Buddhism regarding abortion causes discomfort and embarrassment among many Western Buddhists and is often disregarded by those who are aware of it.\u00a0 \u201cAbortion is common in many Asian Buddhist societies, perhaps most of all in Japan, where it has become widely accepted as a form of birth-control (partly because oral contraceptives were not legal until recently)\u201d.\u00a0 \u201cAgain, karma relativizes even this prohibition: to break the precept against harming others may create more suffering for yourself, yet that is your own decision \u2013 a flexibility precious to many liberal-minded Western Buddhists\u201d (p.2).<\/p>\u00a0<\/p>
Certain practices of Islam affect Muslim women\u2019s sexual and reproductive health.\u00a0 In a journal authored by Arousell and Carlbom (2015), they stated that:<\/p>
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Currently, there are different hypotheses on how Islamic devotion is believed to shape individuals’ sexual and reproductive health and health-related behaviors. A first line of arguments, primarily expressed in epidemiological literature, focuses on risk factors for morbidities caused by Islamic practices. For instance, a study conducted among pregnant Muslim women in the Netherlands revealed that women’s adherence to Ramadan fasting during early pregnancy could lead to lower birth weight of newborns. Researchers in the field subsequently urge for large-scale studies that could investigate the potential perinatal morbidity and mortality, as well as initiatives for health-care providers to gain access to research-driven information on helping pregnant women to make well informed decisions regarding fasting during the month of Ramadan. Other risk factors that are argued to account for Islamic-specific morbidities, although not always related to sexual and reproductive health matters, include rituals during the \u201cHajj\u201d pilgrimage; prohibition against intake of alcohol and pork meat, which may inhibit the intake of certain medicines; and lack of vitamin D among Muslim women wearing head scarfs. In conclusion, there are suggestions and discussions about correlations between religious practices and low outcomes in health, yet little evidence-based material that can help formulate \u201cbest practice\u201d recommendations (p.78-79).<\/p>
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The above paragraph shows that certain practices of Muslims, like Ramadan and \u201cHajj\u201d pilgrimage can affect the mother\u2019s health while pregnant, and can affect the baby, too.\u00a0 This shows that certain practices of Islam have control of Muslim mothers\u2019 condition while pregnant.\u00a0 This also puts the mother\u2019s health at risk.\u00a0<\/p>
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Judaism<\/strong> has certain beliefs when it comes to the use of contraception.\u00a0 The following paragraph shows the view of Religions (2014) regarding Judaism and contraception:<\/p>\u00a0<\/p>
Contraception, including artificial contraception, is permitted in Judaism in appropriate circumstances.\u00a0 Reform and Liberal schools of Judaism allow birth control for a wide range of reason. Orthodox Judaism is more restrictive.\u00a0 The methods of contraception allowed under Jewish law are those that do not damage the sperm or stop it getting to its intended destination. These are the contraceptive pill and the IUD.\u00a0 The religious view on birth control is based on two principles: it is a commandment to marry and have children, it is forbidden to ‘waste seed’ (to emit semen while at the same time preventing conception). The modern Orthodox position permits the use of contraception in these cases: when pregnancy or childbirth might harm the mother, to limit the number of children in a family for the benefit of the family, to delay or space out having children, but a married couple should not use contraception for the selfish reason of avoiding having children altogether.\u00a0 The female birth control pill is favoured by Jewish couples because male birth control methods are frowned on. This is because they ‘waste seed’ and because the commandment to have children is primarily directed at men.\u00a0 Condoms are particularly unacceptable because they block the passage of semen, and because they reduce the pleasure husband and wife get from sex and so interfere with one of the natural purposes of intercourse.\u00a0 Rabbis disagree about the use of the diaphragm – some forbid it because it blocks the passage of semen, while others state that it is not forbidden because the semen enters the woman’s body in a normal manner.\u00a0 A birth control method that led to breakthrough bleeding would be a concern for Orthodox Jews as sex is not permitted in the presence of blood. This affects some types of pill and some IUDs (Judaism and Contraception, para 1-9).<\/p>
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The UNFPA (2016) also explained that family planning and contraception are supported by most Jewish<\/strong> scholars and faith leaders.\u00a0 Marriage and family are valued in Judaism<\/strong>, and mothers are regarded highly.\u00a0 However, a childless couple is viewed to be suffering because human procreation is considered as a part of God\u2019s plan.\u00a0 Pregnancy is seen in Judaism not only as a part of women\u2019s lives but a devotion to God as well.\u00a0 Consequently, women may feel obliged to procreate.\u00a0 Contraceptives are available but cultural pressures discourage their use. \u00a0Israeli rabbinate authorities do not interpret the use of contraceptive methods as a Jewish law violation.\u00a0 Forms of contraception are allowed except condoms and sterilization because they interfere with male fertility.\u00a0 In Judaism, human procreation is a male\u2019s privilege since fertility resides in men\u2019s seed.\u00a0 So, the male also has an obligation to procreate.\u00a0 Thus, Orthodox authorities will generally approve of birth control pills, but will not allow a device that blocks the passage of sperm because this prevents the man from fulfilling his obligation (p.4).\u00a0 The above paragraph includes the obligation of both men and women to procreate, and both are also controlled by Jewish view and cultural pressures.\u00a0 On the part of women, procreation is a devotion to God.\u00a0 Since bearing a child or being a mother is regarded highly, then women may indeed feel pressured to procreate.<\/p>\u00a0<\/p>
Most Christian<\/strong> Theologians consider that the human ability to procreate is a capacity which is given by God.\u00a0 However, there are many debates about this agreement.\u00a0 The Catholics,<\/strong> considered to be the largest single group of Christians globally, have a teaching which limits sex to marriage and compel that the couple should be open to children.\u00a0 Artificial or modern contraceptive methods violate the main role of marriage because it prevents the creation of new life, and therefore viewed as a sin against nature.\u00a0 \u201cNatural family planning is cycle\u201d.\u00a0 The authorized opinion of the Catholic Church regarding contraception is detailed in different Papal Encyclicals (1930, 1968, 1995), and it is debated within Catholic communities.\u00a0 Surveys revealed that Catholic couples ignore the church\u2019s stance on contraception.\u00a0 In rural communities, however, women tend to avoid contraceptives because they fear stigmatization (UNFPA, 2016, p.45).\u00a0\u00a0 Catholics agree that God has gifted them with the ability to procreate or to have children.\u00a0 However, even if the use of artificial or modern contraceptive methods are considered as a sin against nature in Catholic faith, there are still couples who do not follow the teaching of the Catholic church.\u00a0 There are women who seek help from the doctor and ask for appropriate contraceptive forms despite their knowledge that the church is against it.\u00a0 On the other hand, there are still women who follow the instruction of the church.\u00a0\u00a0 Catholic women, are still somewhat controlled by the Catholic church, but of course it depends on them whether they will follow or not.<\/p>\u00a0<\/p>
Srikanthan & Reid (2008) also expressed the stance of the Roman Catholics<\/strong> on contraception.\u00a0 The details are indicated below:<\/p>\u00a0<\/p>
within Catholicism<\/strong>, the primary purpose of marriage and sexual intercourse is procreation.\u00a0 \u00a0Every act of intercourse must remain open to conception.\u00a0 \u00a0Contraception destroys any potential to produce new life and violates the principal purpose of marriage.\u00a0 This contraception ban is against unnatural means of contraception, which include chemical and barrier methods.\u00a0 \u00a0Abstinence and the rhythm method are the only officially approved methods of birth spacing.\u00a0 These forms of family planning may be used for medical, economic, and social indications.\u00a0 \u00a0Contraceptive intent and results when these methods are used are no longer considered sinful.\u00a0 All other forms of birth control are forbidden. \u00a0In Catholicism, new life is treated as a person from the moment of conception.\u00a0 \u00a0All forms of abortion and emergency contraception are prohibited except for measures normally taken to save a mother that result in the death of the fetus (p.130).<\/p>\u00a0<\/p>
Both Judaism and Catholicism<\/strong> believe that marriage is for procreation, and this is also the time when both husband and wife can enjoy sexual intercourse.\u00a0 They also have their own views regarding the use of birth control methods.\u00a0 The Jewish law allows the use of birth control pill and IUD but forbids the use of condom because it blocks the semen and it is forbidden to waste seed.\u00a0 However, in Catholicism, abstinence and rhythm method are the only allowed birth spacing methods.<\/p>\u00a0<\/p>
Various Orthodox communities<\/strong> are different in terms of approach.\u00a0 The Orthodox churches<\/strong> believe that sexual activity is only for married couples.\u00a0 The Eastern Orthodox Church only approves of the rhythm method and opposes all family planning methods.\u00a0 Other Orthodox Churches allow married couples to plan or regulate the size of their family without specifying allowable methods.\u00a0 \u201cIn Russia, the political leadership has promoted traditional patriarchal family values in order to curb the trend towards low birth rates, with the active support of the Russian Orthodox Church. The Church has encouraged large families and traditional family values\u201d (UNFPA, 2016, p.46).<\/p>\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>Eastern Orthodox<\/strong> also explained their beliefs regarding contraception.\u00a0 <\/strong>\u00a0Srikanthan & Reid (2008) likewise explained the beliefs of Eastern Orthodox regarding contraception (2008).\u00a0 They expressed that:<\/p>The morality of contraception continues to be discussed in modern Orthodoxy. At its strictest, the Orthodox Church permits only abstinence as a method of contraception.\u00a0 The sole purpose of sex is procreation.\u00a0 Increasing consensus in Orthodox theology affirms a more liberal line of thought: the intention to conceive children within the sacrament of marriage does not prohibit the regulation of births.\u00a0 Contraception may be used only within marriage; however, a mentality that excludes children on principle is unacceptable.\u00a0 Officially, the Eastern Orthodox Church has not prohibited contraception. Any method that does not destroy the product of conception may be used; the contraceptive method decision is left to the discretion of the couple.\u00a0 Permanent forms of contraception may not be used unless a morally justifiable reason exists, such as unavoidable genetic disease, conditions that make raising children impossible, or unacceptable risk of maternal morbidity or mortality (p.130-131).<\/p>
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Many Protestant<\/strong> denominations (over 20,000) have different opinions about family planning, but many, probably most, have supported family planning and modern contraceptive methods for some decades.\u00a0\u00a0 \u201cMost churches do not support the provision of services to unmarried couples but in practice health clinics may do so based on pragmatic arguments\u201d.\u00a0 Some Pentecostal<\/strong> and Evangelical<\/strong> groups are against contraceptive methods, especially those that they consider as abortifacients (UNFPA, 2016, p.45).\u00a0<\/p>\u00a0<\/p>
Srikanthan & Reid (2008) elaborated the beliefs of Protestants<\/strong> regarding the use of contraceptive methods.\u00a0 They also pointed out something about abortion.\u00a0 The details are expressed below:<\/p>\u00a0<\/p>
Literal interpretation of the Bible has resulted in disapproval of contraception among conservative Protestants, such as Evangelical and Fundamentalist Protestants; the use of contraception would violate God\u2019s command to \u201cbe fruitful and multiply.\u201d\u00a0 Although mainstream conservative Protestants believe that marriages should be procreative, there are no prohibitions against using contraception within a marriage that already has children.\u00a0 \u00a0Reproductive health decisions, such as the final size of the family, the appropriate conditions for contraception and the choice of contraception, are left to the discretion of the couple.\u00a0 Virtually all liberal Christian communities accept the use of contraception within marriage for the purpose of exercising responsible parenthood, enhancing marital love, and protecting women\u2019s health.\u00a0 Health care providers should begin contraception discussions with Protestant patients by determining which Protestantism denomination the couple are affiliated with and whether they adhere to conservative beliefs about contraception.\u00a0 Protestantism considers abortion a sin; however, the permissibility of abortion and emergency contraception varies between denominations. Conservative Protestantism has condemned all abortion.\u00a0 The majority of mainstream conservative Protestant denominations permit terminations when the mother\u2019s life is threatened.\u00a0 In situations of unwanted pregnancies, the decision is left to the woman.\u00a0\u00a0 Liberal Protestants favour a woman making her own decision to actualize her moral agency (p.131).<\/p>
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Eastern Orthodox<\/strong> and Protestant <\/strong>have similarities in their beliefs about contraception.\u00a0 Particularly, Eastern Orthodox Church has authorized contraceptive methods provided that it will be used only within marriage.\u00a0 Couples have the right to choose the appropriate contraceptive methods.\u00a0 Permanent methods of contraception may be used only when there are reasons that will risk the health and life of the mother and the baby itself.\u00a0 On the other hand, Conservative Protestants, such as Evangelical and Fundamental Protestants disapproved of contraception due to the literal interpretation of God\u2019s command (written in the bible) which is to be fruitful and multiply.\u00a0 Despite their belief that marriage is for procreation, mainstream Protestants do not prohibit couples to use contraception as long as they are married, and they are allowed to choose the appropriate forms of contraception.\u00a0 Health care providers should identify the Protestant denomination in order to determine the contraception which is appropriate to patients\u2019 belief.\u00a0 With regard to abortion, Conservative Protestants condemn abortion, and majority of mainstream conservative protestants allow it only when the mother\u2019s life is at risk.<\/p>\u00a0<\/p>
Srikanthan & Reid (2008) explained that in Hindu<\/strong> doctrine, the purpose for creating women was for them to have children, specifically sons.\u00a0 However, this religion\u2019s prohibitions against contraception are not specified.\u00a0 They also showed Confucianism<\/strong> and Taoism\u2019s<\/strong> beliefs about contraceptive methods.\u00a0 They said that Confucianism or Taoism does not oppose any contraceptive method.\u00a0 All modern family planning approaches are acceptable.\u00a0 Among traditional ethnic Chinese, natural methods of contraception are more acceptable because they have beliefs regarding harmony with nature which are based on rhythmic change of pin and ying, created by Confucians and Taoists.\u00a0 In this way, withdrawal and rhythm are preferred, but they do not oppose continuous contraception.\u00a0\u00a0 Abortion and emergency contraception are neither endorsed nor prohibited because Chinese are tolerant and compassionate.\u00a0 Termination of pregnancy is not wrong unless it is completed unnecessarily, and it is never equivalent to murder (p.135).<\/p>\u00a0<\/p>
Religion and culture play a role in controlling women\u2019s ovaries, particularly their sexuality, pregnancy and contraception.\u00a0 Some women follow the teachings of their religion because of faith, but some comply only because they are pressured by their society which is also influenced by the culture itself.\u00a0 For example, certain practices are done because they are already part of the culture which is also influenced by religion.\u00a0\u00a0 These practices definitely depend on the type of religion.\u00a0 Like the statements above, some religions have similar practices, but some are different.\u00a0 Beliefs about how women should behave are rooted in religious teachings, and these are of course integrated in one\u2019s culture.\u00a0 Some may choose to disobey, but pressures of society force them to do otherwise.\u00a0\u00a0 In the present time, one\u2019s culture and country affect women\u2019s way of thinking, whether they will be controlled by religion or not.\u00a0 Specifically, with the advancement of science and technology, these religious beliefs about women\u2019s sexuality, pregnancy, and contraception have evolved since women may be enticed by different techniques that make them pregnant or make them control their pregnancy.\u00a0 Likewise, with the media, peer pressure, and environment, some women may be expressive when it comes to their sexuality.\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0The views of different religions on women are indicated below in order to comprehend the history of the religion\u2019s control of women and their ovaries.<\/p>
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Hunt and Jung (2009) stated the religious commitment itself may have an influence on how people perceive themselves sexually, because religious institutions or religious authorities often communicate sexual messages (as cited in Abbott et al., 2016, p. 1064).\u00a0 Browning et al. (2006) added that different faiths vary greatly in messages about sex and sexuality, so sexual self-perceptions differ because of religion that people have or identify with, and religious commitment as well (as cited in Abbott et al., 2016, p. 1064).\u00a0<\/p>
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Confucianism<\/strong> has its own beliefs about women which can be caused by Confucius\u2019 views of women which are included in the Analects.\u00a0 Women are controlled directly and indirectly, and this can also be caused by China\u2019s patriarchal society.\u00a0 Women\u2019s accomplishments are overlooked, and men are the ones that are mostly recognized.\u00a0 \u00a0The way of life brought about by Confucianism may control sexuality, pregnancy, and contraception because of its patriarchal society.\u00a0 According to Jiang (2009) China has been a patriarchal society since the past years.\u00a0 How Confucianism functions in China with regard to women\u2019s status also shows how Confucianism functions in patriarchal societies in general (p. 228).\u00a0 The most sexist practices in China\u2019s past were foot-binding and polygamy.\u00a0 There is still sexual discrimination in China until today.\u00a0 Women\u2019s status has improved immensely in contemporary China, but women being inferior to men is still accepted.\u00a0 This is exemplified in many areas of rural China wherein women have to obey men, do all housework, and are never involved in significant decisions.\u00a0\u00a0 In cities, the wife usually does the housework, so the husband succeeds in his career (p.229).\u00a0 In professional and academic areas, women are deprived of the opportunity to succeed and to be given recognition even if these achievements are equal to male counterparts.\u00a0\u00a0 At the main stage of various conferences where established people are supposed to sit, usually there are no Chinese women or almost no Chinese women that are invited to sit.\u00a0 The usual reason for not inviting women to sit at the main stage is they believe that they are not as established as the men at the conference.\u00a0 Chinese women are less successful than Chinese men; this shows that Chinese women are oppressed.\u00a0 It is not true that the Chinese men who sit at the main stage of a conference are more established, because the achievements of women are overlooked (p. 229).\u00a0 Some have argued that Chinese women are more powerful than Chinese men, because they can control their husbands and sons.\u00a0 This claim is not sensible because Chinese women cannot control their husbands and sons when it comes to important decisions.\u00a0\u00a0 Mostly, the influence of Chinese women is on their men\u2019s daily lives, and not on decisions affecting their men\u2019s professional and political lives (p.229).\u00a0 The number of women who have impact on their husbands\u2019 or sons\u2019 issues is small.\u00a0 Likewise, even if some women have impact on their society through their men, this still depends on men whether they will allow it or not (p.230).\u00a0 Women have to show their power through men; therefore, this shows that men and women are not equal in terms of power.\u00a0\u00a0 Men generally have more power in political and professional areas.\u00a0 However, there are exceptions because there were female rulers whose power was greater than men during their times.\u00a0 Their stories were not about how equal they were to men, but only about their capabilities (p.230).\u00a0 There are only two comments in the Analects which are directly related to women.\u00a0\u00a0 In one place Confucius says: \u201cOnly women and pretty men are hard to be with. If you are close to them, they become disrespectful; if you keep a distance, they become resentful\u201d.\u00a0\u00a0 This comment has been interpreted as Confucius\u2019s low opinion of women.\u00a0 However, some contemporary commentators have tried various interpretations in order to eliminate the sexism of this passage.\u00a0 One of these is to change female children to women, so that the passage does not seem to undermine all women.\u00a0 However, the problem remains because Confucius specified female children as an object of criticism, but not male children (p. 230).\u00a0\u00a0 In another place Confucius says:<\/p>[The sage king] Shun had five ministers and society was well managed. King Wu said: \u201cI had ten able people as ministers.\u201d Confucius commented, \u201cIt is difficult to find talented ones, isn\u2019t it? The times of Tang [Yao\u2019s dynasty] andYu [Shun\u2019s dynasty] were very rich in talent. [Among KingWu\u2019s ministers] there was a woman, so there were only nine people.\u201d<\/p>
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This comment has also been considered to show sexism.\u00a0 Confucius did not consider King Wu\u2019s female minister to be equal to the other nine men.\u00a0\u00a0 Confucius thought that there were only nine talented people who could work for King Wu, and he also thought that \u201cwomen were not person in the same sense as men were\u201d (p. 231).\u00a0 \u201cIn the Analects<\/em>, virtues such as ren <\/em>(humanity, benevolence), yi <\/em>(righteousness), li <\/em>(propriety), zhi <\/em>(wisdom),